Constitution of India, Article-14

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Right to Equality (Article 14)

Article 14 declares that “the State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India”. The phrase “equality before the law” occurs in almost all written constitutions that guarantee fundamental rights. Equality before the law is an expression of English Common Law while “equal protection of the laws” owes its origin to the American Constitution. Both the phrases aim to establish what is called the “equality of status and of opportunity” as embodied in the Preamble of the Constitution. While equality before the law is somewhat negative concept implying the absence of any special privilege in favour of any individual and the equal subjection of the classes to the ordinary law, equal protection of law is a more positive concept implying equality of treatment under equal circumstances. Thus, Article 14 stands for the establishment of a situation under which there is complete absence of any arbitrary discrimination by the laws themselves or in their administration.

Interpreting the scope of the Article, the Supreme Court of India has held that : (a) equal protection means equal protection under equal circumstances; (b) the State can make reasonable classification for purposes of legislation; (c) presumption of reasonableness is in favour of the legislation; and (d) the burden of proof is on those who challenge the legislation. Explaining the scope of reasonable classification, the Court held that “even one corporation or a group of persons can be taken to be a class by itself for the purpose of legislation, provided there is sufficient basis or reason for it. The onus of proving that there were also other companies similarly situated and this company alone has been discriminated against, was on the petitioner”.

In its struggle for social and political freedom, mankind has always tried to move towards the idea of equality for all. The urge for equality and liberty has been the motive of many revolutions. The Character of United Nations records the determination of the member nations to reaffirm their faith in the equal rights of men and women. Indeed, real and effective democracy cannot be achieved unless equality in all spheres is realised in full measures.

However, complete equality among men and women in all spheres of life is a distant ideal to be realised only by the march of humanity along with long and difficult path of economic, social and political progress. The constitution and the laws of country can at best assure to its citizens only a limited measures of equality. The framers of the Indian Constitution were fully conscious of this. This is why while they gave political and legal equality the status of a fundamental right, economic and social equality was largely left within the scope of Directive Principles of State Policy.

The Right to Equality affords protection not only against discriminatory laws passed by legislatures but also prevents arbitrary discretion being vested in the executive. In the modern state, the executive is armed with vast powers, in the matter of enforcing by laws, rules and regulations as well as in the performance of a number of other functions. The equality clause prevents such power from being exercised in the discriminatory manner. For example, the issue of licences regulating various traders and business activities cannot be left to the unqualified discretion of the licensing authority. The law regulating such activities should lay down the principles under which the licensing authority has to act in the grant of these licences.



Equality of Opportunity in Matters of Public Employment (Article 16)

Article 16 Guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment. In the first part of the Article, the general rule is laid down that there shall be equal opportunity for all citizens, wherever they are living, in matters of employment under the State, thereby the universality of Indian citizenship is emphasised. In the next section, the general principle is explained in detail. According to this, the State is prohibited from showing any discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, caste, race, sex, descent, place of birth or residence.

The next clauses are in the nature of exceptions. According to the first, residence qualifications may be made necessary in the case of appointments under the State for particular positions. But instead of leaving it to individual States to make any rules they like in this regard, the power is vested in Parliament to prescribe the requirements as to residence within the State. This is intended to make the qualifying test uniform throughout India. The second exception is in favour of reservation of positions in public employment for any backward class of citizens. This is meant to help those who have had very little share so far in public employment. The determination of a backward community is a matter that is left to each State Government. The third exception seeks to take out of the scope of the general principle the management of the affairs of any religious or denominational institution under any special law providing for the same.

The Central Government has been taking several measures to translate the ideal embodies in Article 16 into practice. It convenes, on a regular basis, a conference of State Ministers of Backward Classes with a view to assessing the measures already taken and suggesting necessary modifications to existing practices in order to produce better results. It also advises the State Governments from time to time on specific actions, such as the deletion of references to caste from official records and application forms for admission to educational institutions and issuing warning against the practice of untouchability to all government servants, etc.

The States are also advised to adopt economic criteria for the determination of the backwardness of a particular class. But the Governments in the States which are really concerned with the implementation of these proposals have yet to change their attitudes. Most of them are still so much influenced by caste and communal considerations that it seems unrealistic to expect much from them in the near future. Rapid industrialisation and the availability of plenty of new jobs along with a simultaneous expansion of educational opportunities for the backward sections of the community as well as a change in the outlook and attitude of those classes and groups which held a traditional monopoly in public services will gradually facilitate the realisation of the ultimate goal of equal opportunity in public services.

What is What-136*

1. Acupuncture: A Chinese system of needle cure developed around 2700 B.C. It specifies 365 spots in the human body and treatment is done by inserting needles in these spots.

2. Adult Franchise (Universal): The Principle of giving the right to vote to all adult citizens of a state irrespective of their caste, creed, colour, religion, sex etc.,

3. Aestheticism: A movement in art and literature which gives precedence to aesthetic values over moral and other values of life.

4. Afrocentrism: Movement of American Blacks Projecting racial superiority of the Blacks over the Whites.

5. Amish: A Christian group characterised by its rejection of modern and urban ways of life.

6. Amnesia: Loss of memory through shock or brain damage.

7. Anarchism: Anarchism is a political theory which denounces authority as harmful and government as an unnecessary evil; a state of lawlessness.

8. Anglicanism: A Christian denominational creed under the Church of England with Archbishop of Canterbury as its titular head.

9. Anorexia: Lack or loss of the desire to eat

10. Anthology: A collection of literary pieces.

11. Anthropomorphism: Envisaging non-human objects, especially God as having physical and mental characteristics like those of human beings.

12. Anti-hero: A literary character with dominanat negative qualities.

13. Apartheid: The policy of racial segregation practiced in South Africa till the 1990’s.

14. Armageddon: As per the Bible, the site of the final battle between the nations that will end the world.

15. Atavism: Theory according to which the characteristics of a remote ancestor can reappear in a person or plant after several intervening years.

16. Arbitration: Referring a dispute to a third, unbiased party for settlement.

17. Atheism: The belief that God as a separate entity does not exist.

18. Autarky: “Fortress policy” followed by states to achieve economic self sufficiency.

19. Autocracy: A form of govt. in which one person holds absolute power with uncontrolled and undisputed authority.

20. Avant Garde: Literally advance group or movement that is innovative and marks a departure from existing norms.

21. Balance of Payments: An account of a country’s debit and credit transactions with other countries.

22. Balance of Power: A foreign policy principle according to which alliances are formed to prevent one nation becoming overwhelmingly powerful in any one part of the world.

23. Ballet: A European theatrical dance form with its own characteristic techniques like leaps and pirouetting on toes.

24. Bankruptcy: A legal process by which the assets of an insolvent-debtor is taken away under a court order and divided fairly among the creditors.

25. Beatles: A music group comprising four British boys, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, that became a 20th century phenomenon by leading a pop revolution across the world.

26. Bench Marking: It is a management methodology based on the principle that an efficient practice in one industry should be applicable to other industries.

27. Bicameral System: The system in which legislature is divided into two houses.

28. Big Brother: Derisive term for the oppressor in a Communist state-phrase popularised by George Orwell.

29. Biomass: The total mass of living organisms present in a given area.

30. Black hole: Object in space whose gravity is so great that nothing can escape from it, not even light.

31. Bolshevism: Communist doctrine as adapted by Lenin for practical application in Russia.

32. Bonapartism: Political system of military dictatorship by an individual, ostensibly based on popular appeal, with frequent use of plebiscite.

33. Boxer Rebellion: A peasant uprising in China in the beginning of 20th c. against European encroachments and Christian missionaries.

34. Braille: A coded system of raised dots used by the blind to write and read.

35. Brainwashing: The technique of changing a person’s ideas, beliefs and attitudes by force, ranging from physical torture to psychological pressure.

36. Bretton Woods System: Arrangements to govern post-war monetary and financial relations among nations (1944).

37. Burlesque: A stage show or literary work that ridicules the serious or the trivial using exaggerated comic imitation.

38. Calvinism: Ethical code whose basic tenet is that all people are born sinful and only a few selected by God can hope to attain salvation.

39. Cannibalism: The practice of eating human flesh

40. Canonisation: Declaring a deceased person to be a saint.

41. Cantonment: Townships established by the British for the welfare of armed forces personnel and their families.

42. Capitalism: An economic system that promotes free enterprise or accumulation and investment of wealth by private individual/institutions for profit.

43. Capitation Fee: Money arbitrarily collected by professional colleges and self financing educational institutions for admitting students to their courses.

44. Cartel: A group of firms that agree to manipulate the production and sale of a product with a view to making undue profits for themselves.

45. Castroism: The ideas and policies of Fidel Castro along with Che Guevara in Cuba.

46. Catastrophism: The geological doctrine that repeated catastrophic revolutions account for the features of the earth and the many forms of life on it.

47. Catchment Area: Area from which water is collected by a river and its tributaries.

48. Catharsis: Emotional purging and purification brought about by the experience of pity and fear.

49. Chaos theory: Branch of mathematics which attempts to describe chaotic systems whose behaviour is difficult to predict.

50. Charisma: Marked personal charm or magnetism.

51. Chauvinism: Fanatical Nationalism. Male chauvinism is male bias against females as a class.

52. Chequebook Journalism: The practice of offering big money to dubious characters for the juicy stories they like to reveal of celebrities.

53. Christian Science: An American religious cult believing in the spiritual healing of the sick by changing and correcting the thoughts of the patients.

54. Christian Socialism: A doctrine that sought to counteract the evils of industrial capitalism through the means of Christian ethics.

55. Circumambulation: Ceremonial walking around an object as a religious rite or belief.

56. Coloning: Asexual reproduction of an organism genetically identical to the parent.

57. Cockroach Factor: A term used to denote high degree of environmental adaptability and survival.

58. Cold War: The intensely hostile but non shooting competition and rivalry between the US and USSR after WWII.

59. Collectivism: Direct participation by the state in a country’s economic activities for the common interest and good of all

60. Colonialism: Forceful subjugation of one country by another.

61. Comintern: Communist International, an organisation of communist parties set up by Lenin in 1919.

62. Communism: A social system in which property is owned by the people with everyone giving according to his ability and taking according to his needs.

63. Confucianism: Ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius (Kond-fu-zi) emphasising personal virtue, devotion to family and justice.

64. Conservatism: Conservatism gives importance and value to tradition and status quo over change.

65. Consumer Price Index: Index of the cost of goods and services, needed for an average standard of living.

66. Coup d’etat: Forcible takeover of the government of a country by elements from within that country.

67. Cruise Missile: A strategic missile capable of propelling itself and carrying warheads. They fly close to the ground evading radar detection.

68. Crusade: Religious war in Europe against non-Christians and heretics, sanctioned by the Pope. In particular it was a series of wars (1096-1291) by the European rules to recapture Palestine from the Muslims.

69. Cubism: Movement in modern art which grew out of artists desire to go beyond naturalism. Cubists dissected their subjects into geometric shapes and assembled them with a deliberate avoidance of perspective.

70. Cultural Revolution: A socio-political movement in China during Mao Zedong’s ruleaimed at overthrowing entrenched bureaucracy and rekindling revolutionary fervour and ideas.

71. Culture Shock: The psychological reaction following sudden exposure to an alien cultural environment.

72. Dadaism: Art movement after WWI. A protest against conventional art, it was basically nihilistic and had no formal style of its own.

73. Dalit: A generic term denoting the backward and oppressed classes coming in the official category of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Dalit Panthers, a militant organisation of “untouchables” formed in Bombay in 1970’s.

74. Dementia: Degenerative mental disorder affecting memory, intelligence and orientation.

75. Devaluation: The deliberate diminishing of the exchange value of a country’s currency

76. Dollar Diplomacy: The US policy of using its economic political and military strengths to promote its national interest at the expense of other countries.

77. Down’s Syndrome: A congenital condition that causes mental deficiency and physical malformations.

78. Dyslexia: A neurological disorder that adversely affect children’s ability to read, write and form words.

79. Econometrics: Mathematical and statistical analysis of economic issues.

80. Ecumenism: A movement for unity among Christian churches.

81. Ego: The Latin word of “I” meaning the self. It is one’s perception of oneself.

82. Electra Complex: The sexually coloured feelings of a daughter towards her father and jealousy towards her mother.

83. Elitism: The theory that ll political systems in effect are governed by a minority of influential and dominant people called the ‘elite’.

84. Ergonomics: The study of the application of biology and engineering to the relationship between workers and their environment (bio-technology).

85. ESP (Extra Sensory Perception): Awareness or knowledge obtained without the use of normal senses.

86. Esperanto: An artificial language developed by Russian physician Louis Zamenhof in 1887.

87. Epicureanism: Ethical philosophy developed in ancient Grece by Epicurus. The goal of life is happiness which can be attained only through please and avoiding pain.

88. Ethnic Cleansing: A policy of genocide adopted by Serbia to drive Croats and Muslims out of Bosnia-Herzegovina as Yugoslavia disintegrated in 1992.

89. Ethnicity: People’s own sense of cultural identity.

90. Ethnocentrism: A anthropological term to describe a group’s belief that its own way of life is superior to that of others.

91. Ethnology: Study of contemporary peoples focussing on their geography and culture.

92. Ethology: Comparative study of animal behaviour in its natural setting .

93. Thymology: Study of the origin and history of words.

94. Egenics: The science of improving the hereditary qualities through controlled reproduction.

95. Eurocentrism: The assumption that human scientific progress is an exclusively European achievement and so western civilization is the only model for other societies to follow.

96. Existentialism: A concept according to which human being’s existence with his own will and consciousness, is independent of anything else.

97. Expressionism: A school of painting that exphasises the inner meaning of the subjects painted.

98. Extradition: Surrender, by one country to another, of a person accused of criminal offence in the country to which that person is extradited.

99. Fascism: A political ideology based on extreme right wing ideas under one party and one unquestionable leader.

100. Fascism: A political ideology based on extreme right wing ideas under one party and one unquestionable leader.

101. Fatalism: The belief that lives and events are determined by powers beyond human control.

102. Fatwa: An inviolable order issued by an islamic religious head.

103. Federalism: Governmental system in which power is constitutionally shared by central and regional authorities.

104. Feminism: Women's movement for gaining equal rights with men in social, political and economic fields.

105. Fetishism: A tribal tradition that considers people or objects as possessors of spirit and therefore worthy of worship.

106. Feudalism: A system in which landlords having vast estates or fiefdoms exercise absolute power over tenants and others living in their jurisdictions.

107. Fifth Column: Persons working secretly to subvert a government or a party or an organisation from within.

108. Final Solution: Phrase coined by Nazi Germany for the annihilation of Jews in Europe and thereby solving "the Jewish problem".

109. Folklore: The oral tradations and culture of a people, expressed in legends, riddles, songs, and proverbs.

110. Fourteen Point: US President Woodrow Wilson's proposals for peace after the WWI: free navigation in the seas, equality in trade conditions, reduction of armaments, etc.

111. Fourth Estate: The press (journalism and journalists)

112. Functionalism: How the function of an organism or structure determines its features.

113. Fundamentalism: Blind faith in the infallibility of a doctrine, usually religious, accompanied by a readiness to act in its defence and promotion

114. Futurism: An art movement which rejected the past in a sensationalist style by advocating such steps as the destruction of museums. In art futurism stressed dynamism in contrast to cubism's still life.

115. Futurology: A 20th Century discipline that seeks to interpret future trends on the basis of present happenings.

116. Gang of Four: Derisive term applied to a powerful quarter of leaders who wielded great influence in Chine during the last phase of Mao Zedong's rule. It comprised Mao's wife Chiang Ching and her three favourite proteges Wang Hungwen, Chang Chungchaiao and Yao Wenyuan.

117. Gaullism: The French nationalist philosophy as propounded by Charles de Gaulle.

118. Genetic Engineering: The science of manipulating the DNA to produce desired characteristics in progeny.

119. Genocide: The policy of systematically exterminating an ethnic group.

120. Geochemistry: The study of the substances of the earth, including the seas and the atmosphere.

121.Geopolitics: The study of the relation of politics with the realities of geography.

122. Gerontology: The scientific study of the process of ageing.

123. Gerrymandering: The rearranging of constituency boundaries to give an unfair advantage usually to the ruling party.

124. Ghazal: A short graceful lyric poem of love rendered by singers.

125. GNP: Gross National Product the total market value of goods and services produced by the economy of a country during a year.

126. Golden Handshake: A policy of voluntary retirement with attractive compensation packages devised for private and public sector companies to exclude excess or inconvenient staff.

127. Gothic: A style of architecture and art in 12th-16th c. Europe

128-Graphology: Analysing a person's psychology using his handwriting.

129-Green House Effect: The phenomenon by which solar radiation, trapped and re-emitted by the earth is prevented from espcaping by various gases in the air like Carbon Dioxide and CFC's

130-Group Theraphy: Psycho-medical treatment to a group of patients who share common ailments.

131-Guernica: A term symbolising the brutality and meaninglessness of war.

132-Gyroscope: A device that provides directional reference to vehicles and other moving objects like missiles.

133-Habeas Corpus: A legal writ issued by a court directing the production before it of the body of a detained person, usually to inquire into the legality of the detention.

134-Hacker: Slang for a computer whiz-kid who uses his skills to break unauthorisedly into computer networks.

135-Hara-kiri: Ritual belly-cutting practised by the Samurai (military) class of feudal Japan as the honourable method of suicide.

136-Hard Currency : The currency of economically strong and dominant countries that enjoy preferential demand in the foreign exchange market.

NAVAL ARCHITECH

Ever since the dawn of human civilisation, oceans have served as a great source of mystery to the human beings from time to time. They have fascinated people, resulting in the discovery of new lands and people, with the help of boats & ships. Man innovated and made bigger & faster ships. Of course, the outer appearance has changed as ships have become more attractive. He is a professional engineer, who is responsible for design, construction, development and repair of the surface and underwater vessels and operating systems including ships, boats and offshore structures.

The minimum qualification required to become a naval architect is a Bachelor’s degree in Naval Architecture/Ocean Engineering. You can also, after doing a Bachelor in Architecture, pursue a post graduation (specialisation) in Naval Architecture. You are expected to know about the systems involved in a typical design process, like analysing requirements, deciding materials and production techniques as well as assessing quality and reliability. Thus, in addition to various engineering techniques such as material fabrication, assembly, installation and commissioning, you will also be taught management practices such as production, planning and quality control.

The naval architects deal with both civil and military vessels (such as merchant ships & warships); submarines, light-speed crafts (such as hovercraft and multihull ships); yachts and recreational craft. They are also responsible for design and development of drilling platforms and other structures. They have to ensure that the design meets the technical and safety standards laid down by various governing agencies. Their other responsibilities include management of planning, production and the complex operation of fitting equipment. Organisation of supply of materials and components as well as inspection and testing, optimum use of new techniques and equipment and better training for the work force are some of the other important functions of the naval architects.

Since ships and other offshore vessels remain in service for many years, their maintenance and up-gradation is a routine function of the naval architects. There are times when they have to come out with ingenious ideas and improvise on the spot during emergency repair work.

Engineering at such scales and in the present age of sophisticated technologies is essentially a teamwork consisting of engineers from various disciplines. Ships are berthed in dry docs for repair. Therefore, the naval architects spend their time on computers using architecture and engineering software in the dry docks. Besides, naval architects also coordinate activities with their clients, other professionals and government officials. In addition, they also assist in the budgeting process. In nutshell, naval architects integrate all the above-mentioned activities to produce a product according to the purpose.


To become a good naval architect you should have good design and technical skills, sound analytical and numerical ability, eye of detail, good communication skills and mechanical ability. The other important traits of this profession include physical stamina, to work on the desk as well as site, patience, sense of responsibility and accountability and team spirit.

Naval architects generally find employment, to take up design work, with ship and boat builders, offshore constructions, design consultants and regulatory and ship survey societies. Big companies such as Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers Ltd., Mazgaon Docks, Goa Shipyard Ltd., etc., as well as other companies such as ONGS, involved in off-shore petroleum drilling also employ naval architects. They also also employ naval architects. They also work on other commercial as well as defence products. Moreover, naval architects can work with companies engaged in design of products like propulsion system, auxiliary system (backup), underwater equipment and control systems. They also find employment in the technical departments of companies where they are responsible for many phases of ship and equipment procurement and for taking care of the company’s maritime operations.

Government departments employ naval architects to frame the safety regulations and manage survey ships and equipment to ensure safety. Classification companies also employ ship surveyors for evaluating the safety of marine structures and ships following government regulations. In addition, companies engaged in research and development, educational institutes, sales and marketing department of marine engineering and construction engineering also employ naval architects.

Starting salaries are on the higher side, in the range of Rs 15,000-20,000 a month for those with a bachelor’s degree as it is a specialised service. If you have a postgraduate degree the salary is in the range of 22,000 to Rs. 30,000 per month. In the government Organisations, pay scales are Rs.8,000 - 16,000, but job security along with other benefits make it equally attractive.

As in other fields, a naval architect's career options increase as he gains experience. With time you can become a specialist in some area or develop a broader expertise in several areas. Generally, you grow to become senior executives. You can also start your own consultancy services providing clients with engineering solutions, technical guidance and project management for vessel construction, repair and upgradation. If you want to progress faster, you must keep in regular touch with the latest developments in the field of technology and also be aware of the new opportunities in this field.

Institutes

• Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi-110016. Course-Diploma (Postgraduate)
• Indian Institute of Technology, Department of Ship Tech., Kharagpur-721302. Course - B.Tech in Naval Architecture
• College of Engineering, Waltair, Visakhapatnam-530003. Course - B.E. Naval Architecture
• Cochin University of Science and Technolgy, Department of Technology, Thrikakara Campus, Kochin-682022. Course - B.Tech Naval Architecture and B.Tech Ship Building
• Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai - 600036. Course - B.Tech Naval Architecture.
• Naval Colege of Engineering, INS Shivaji, Lonavla-410402.

Bio Medical Engineering__

Engineering with its various branches like mechanical, electrical, civil, electronics, etc., has been poular among students for quite a long time. However, in the recent times Biomedical Engineering has gained currency among the student community. Biomedical Engineering combines the thorough knowledge of the principles of both medicine and engineering. The biomedical engineers apply the concepts of biology, physics as well as chemistry to develop products and devices for diagnosis and treatment. The branch integrates physical, chemical, mathematical and computational sciences and engineering principles to study biology, medicine, behaviour and health. So the biomedical engineers have to work closely in association with healthcare professionals like doctors, nurses, therapists and technicians.

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If you want to become a biomedical engineer, you have to do your Bachelor of Engineering (BE) in Biomedical Engineering offered at select institutes. Otherwise, you can do you BE in any of the branches like Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Electronics Engineering or Chemical Engineering and a postgraduate course in Biomedical Engineering. Alternately, you can do your BE in any of the Engineering branches and go for a postgraduate course in Medical Technology, which is considered equivalent to a postgraduate course in Biomedical Engineering. You can also complete an MBBS degree and then opt for a postgraduate degree in Biomedical Engineering/Medical Engineering/Medical Technology.

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Biomedical engineers develop innovative biologics, processes, materials, devices and informatics to prevent, diagnose and treat diseases for patient's rehabilitation. Many of the biomedical engineers do research work along with professionals from life sciences, chemists, and medical scientists. The devices like artificial organs, prostheses (artificial devices to replace missing body parts), medical information systems, instrumentation, health management and care delivery systems, etc., are the contributions of the biomedical engineers. Thus, the engineers in this specialised field need to have a sound grounding in a basic engineering field like mechanical or electronics together with biomedical field. Here, the specialists are also concerned with developing imaging systems such as magnetic resonance, ultrasound and x-ray machines, and techniques and devices to automate insulin injections or control body functions.

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Biomedical engineers find employment with companies that manufacture equipment used in hospitals and diagnostic centres or centres for research and development, manufacturing, quality control and testing as also installation, maintenance or sales and marketing departments. They can also get jobs with large hospitals for selecting, handling and maintaining sophisticated equipments in addition to building customised devices for special needs or work in institutions involved in research. There are a few government agencies where you can get recruited for product testing, safety and establishing safety standards for devices.

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Employment opportunities for biomedical engineers are immense considering the fact that the aging of the population and focus on health issues medical devices and equipment designed by biomedical engineers. Other developments, like computer-assisted surgery and heavy research in molecular, cellular and tissue engineering will also increase the demand for biomedical engineers. Further, the rehabilitation and orthopedic engineering fields are growing at a very fast pace, which also require the services of biomedical engineers.

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Remuneration for biomedical engineering professionals is quite decent. In medical equipment manufacturing companies, you can get anything between Rs.20,000 and Rs. 30,000 per meonth. In research and teaching institutions salaries vary between Rs. 18,000-25,000 per meonth. Private hospitals and clinics pay between Rs. 15,000 and Rs. 25,000 per month. In case of government agencies, the remunerations per month is in the range of Rs. 16,000 to Rs. 22,000 per month.

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These days, Biomedical Engineering along with Biotechnology and Bioinformatics has emerged as one of the hottest careers. In addition, the opening of the insurance sector has made high-quality medical care possible for millions in the country now. Healthcare is also witnessing a lot of technological growth. Taking these developments into account, one can very safely say that in near future, the biomedical engineers will be among the most sought after professionals in public sector enterprises as well as corporate establishments. If you really enjoy research work and are deeply interested in developing cutting edge technologies, then you should pursue a postgraduate course abroad.

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Speciality Areas: There are many areas of specialisation in the emerging field of Biomedical Engineering. Some of them are given below:

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(i) Bioinstrumentation - This area specialises in the application of electronics and measurement techniques to develop devices for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Specialists in this branch make newer and better instruments for X-rays and MRI, etc. as also cameras and other devices to help medical practitioners get a better look at the body.

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(ii) Biomaterials - It relates to producing materials from both living tissues and artifical materials to replace diseased organs. The engineers make devices that functionally true copes of the organs which are to be replaced. They are capable of growing organs from tissues and cells in the laboratory.

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(iii) Tissue Engineering - Nowadays, tissue substitutes are being developed to restore or improve the functions of diseases or damaged human tissues. To give one example, cells from an individual's healthy kidney are used and put in the diseased kidney to grow healthy tissue.

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(iv) Biomechanics - This involves application of mechanics to biological or medical problems and study the flow of bodily fluids in order to decide the specifications for the various devices such as artificial joint replacements, pacemakers, etc.

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(v) Clinical Engineering - Biomedical engineers also develop and maintain computer database of medical instruments and equipment records in hospitals.

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(vi) Orthopedic Bioengineering - Here, engineering is used to understand the function of bones, joints and muscles and for the design of artificial joint replacements. They analyse the friction, lubrication, and wear and tear of natural joints to develop artifical limbs. Further, they also research new technologies and materials that make up bones, joints and tooth implants which are almost as good as nature's version. One of their latest responsibilities include developing and looking after fully programmed robots for use in operating rooms for reaching vital organs that may get damaged permanently, due to human error.

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(vii) Navigation Systems - In this specialised branch, biomedical engineers use software tools and specialised imaging equipments to create a digital picture of the insides of a human patient's body. This helps the surgeons in determining the best possible way to go about an operation. They help in developing new laser technologies for applications in routine and specialised operations, dental surgery and slim-related disorders. The biomedical engineers also help in enhancing the capabilities and improvement in the quality of life for individuals with physical impairments. They are involved in development of homes and workplaces in such a way so as to make such people's lives easier.

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Nano Technology

The Science of the miniature-- nanotechnology, through a relatively new field, is fast emerging as the 'favourite of all' kind of technological arena due to its application in almost every field, from medicine to fabrics. 'Nano' in Greek means dwarf and material, when reduced to nanodimension (10 to the power of -9 metre = 1 nanometre) shows drastic changes in physical, chemical, magnetic, optical, mechanical and electrical properties. This promises exciting applications in bioscience, medical science, environment, electronics, cosmetics security and variety of other fields.

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Everything on this earth is made up of atoms, which are the smallest particles. The properties of everything are determined by the arrangement of the atoms. Thus, if atoms in coal are rearranged, we can get diamond. At present, though scientists are able to move molecules and atoms in a mass yet they are still not able to precisely manipulate them. But in future, nanotechnology will allow us redesign easily and create what we want exactly. Further, nano materials would be very light, strong, transparent, and totally different from from bulk material because they are a thousand times smaller than the diameter of human hair, which is around 60 microns.

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The scope and application of nanotechnology is tremendous and mindboggling. According to the scientists, 21st century would be the nanotechnology century. It is estimated that nano-technology would revolutionise every area, be it medicine, aerospace, engineering, various industrial and technological areas, health or any other field. Nano-biotechnology can make tiny medical devices and sensors with fantastic military and civilian use. Converting sunlight into power, targeting a drung to a single malignant cell, cleaning ponds and creating sensors in the form of biochip, to be inserted in the human body are some of the important landmark breakthrough of nanotechnology. The technology has the potential to produce garments which can block chemical and biological weapons from touching the skin of a person.

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Nanotechnology has many more applications. It can help detect narcotics and fingerprints of suspects in crimes. The technology can make nanonised robots and repair damaged and diseased tissues. Nanobots may be made from carbon nanotubes to carry out functions like human beings. Nano-coatings are transparent, scratch-resistant and dirtrepellent. Thus it is estimated that there will be no sector of industry which whill not use nanotechnology in future.

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Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary subject which essentially combines Physics, Chemistry, Bio-informatics, Bio-technology, etc. Though the field is at present in infancy stage (started some 16 years ago in India), the country is making dedicated efforts not to lag behind after starting work in this field. As a result, there is a great demand for students who do their M.Tech in nanotechnology because a large number of industries and laboratories in India and overseas would lap them up. There are many exciting new fields which will open up for the nanotechnology experts including--

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a) Health Industry research and consulting--Pharmaceutical, Medical, agriculture, food and beverage, environment industries.

b) Research and development in government, universities and private research institutes.

c) Education and academic

d) Enterpreneurial, management and investment advisors in biotechnology and research and development industry.

e) Product development and advising.

f) Communication and media, interfacing of new technologies.

g) Many new industries emerging as a result of advances in nanotechnology.

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To become a successful professional in the specialised field of nanotechnology, it is important that you should have an M.Tech degree in the subject. To get into an M.Tech course, you should have a degree in Physics, Chemistry or Biotechnology. The M.Tech course is of great benefit because students who come from different streams enrich each other to intensify their knowledge.

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There are many institutions which have started courses in nanotechnology: Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore; Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore; National Physical Laboratory, Delhi; Solid State Physics Laboratory, Delhi; National Chemical Laboratory, Pune; Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh; Defence Materials Store Research & Development Organisations, Kanpur and Indian Institutes of Technology at Kanpur, Chennai, Guwahati, Delhi and Mumbai. In addition, the Delhi and Benaras Hindu Universities (Varanasi) are also conducting research in nanotechnology. It is important to note here that although these institutions are focussing on research, there is no institute exclusively providing courses in nanotechnology.

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In private sector also, there is one institute, Amity Institute of Nanotechnology, Noida, which offers a two-year M.TEech degree programme. The education provided is comprehensive. Students are provided the opportunity to get trained at reputed institutes like Solid State Physics Laboratory, National Physical Laboratory, Delhi University, Indian Institute of Technology and All India Institute of Medical Sciences, etc.

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Anticipating huge gains in futre, countries like USA, UK, Japan, China, Germany and France have invested a lot of funds and have also focussed programme at the national level. The USA, under its National Initiatives in Nanotechnology, is planning to invest One trillion Dollars by 2015. The Indian Government has started a scheme "S&T" Initiatives in Nanotechnology" with a starting capital fund of Rs. 100 Crore for five years.

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There is a growing demand for nanotechnologists. If you have an M.Tech degree in nanotechnology, you will start with a monthly salary of Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 30,000. The further rise is manifold in future. In a foreign country the salaries and perks could be much more.

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